72. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Part 2

Note: This post is the seventy-second in a series about government and commercial ethics. Click here for the full listing of the series. The first post in the series has more detail on the book 'Systems of Survival' by Jane Jacobs which inspired this series.

This week's post is the second of two on the book, 'The Theory of Moral Sentiments' by Adam Smith.

This week, I want to talk about the part of the book I found most interesting, which was not Adam Smith talking about his own theories on ethics, but his thoughts on the theories of those who came before him.

Smith starts off by stating that all previous 'systems of moral philosophy' can be classified into one of three types:

"The different accounts which have been given of the nature of virtue, or of the temper of mind which constitutes the excellent and praise-worthy character, may be reduced to three different classes. According to some, the virtuous temper of mind does not consist in any one species of affections, but in the proper government and direction of all our affections, which may be either virtuous or vicious according to the objects which they pursue, and the degree of vehemence with which they pursue them. According to these authors, therefore, virtue consists in propriety.

According to others, virtue consists in the judicious pursuit of our own private interest and happiness, or in the proper government and direction of those selfish affections which aim solely at this end. In the opinion of these authors, therefore, virtue consists in prudence.

Another set of authors make virtue consist in those affections only which aim at the happiness of others, not in those which aim at our own. According to them, therefore, disinterested benevolence is the only motive which can stamp upon any action the character of virtue.

The character of virtue, it is evident, must either be ascribed indifferently to all our affections, when under proper government and direction; or it must be confined to some one class or division of them. The great division of our affections is into the selfish and the benevolent. If the character of virtue, therefore, cannot be ascribed indifferently to all our affections, when under proper government and direction, it must be confined either to those which aim directly at our own private happiness, or to those which aim directly at that of others. If virtue, therefore, does not consist in propriety, it must consist either in prudence or in benevolence. Besides these three, it is scarce possible to imagine that any other account can be given of the nature of virtue. I shall endeavour to show hereafter how all the other accounts, which are seemingly different from any of these, coincide at bottom with some one or other of them."

So three different approaches, benevolence, prudence (enlightened self-interest) or whatever is appropriate to the situation.

The first philosopher that Smith discusses is Plato, and the moral system outlined by Plato in 'The Republic.' I'm going to quote Smith at length because his discussion of Plato cuts right to the heart of everything we've been discussing this whole series. In a way, it's funny, because I read The Republic myself while working on this series, but I didn't manage to extract nearly the same concise summary of it that Adam Smith did (which is not surprising, I suppose, since Smith is a renowned philosopher, and I'm just some guy with a keyboard!). Anyways, take it away Adam,

"In the system of Plato the soul is considered as something like a little state or republic, composed of three different faculties or orders.

The first is the judging faculty, the faculty which determines not only what are the proper means for attaining any end, but also what ends are fit to be pursued, and what degree of relative value we ought to put upon each. This faculty Plato called, as it is very properly called, reason, and considered it as what had a right to be the governing principle of the whole. Under this appellation, it is evident, he comprehended not only that faculty by which we judge of truth and falsehood, but that by which we judge of the propriety or impropriety of desires and affections.

The different passions and appetites, the natural subjects of this ruling principle, but which are so apt to rebel against their master, he reduced to two different classes or orders. The first consisted of those passions, which are founded in pride and resentment, or in what the schoolmen called the irascible part of the soul; ambition, animosity, the love of honour, and the dread of shame, the desire of victory, superiority, and revenge; all those passions, in short, which are supposed either to rise from, or to denote what, by a metaphor in our language, we commonly call spirit or natural fire. The second consisted of those passions which are founded in the love of pleasure, or in what the schoolmen called the concupiscible part of the soul. It comprehended all the appetites of the body, the love of ease and security, and of all sensual gratifications.

It rarely happens that we break in upon that plan of conduct, which the governing principle prescribes, and which in all our cool hours we had laid down to ourselves as what was most proper for us to pursue, but when prompted by one or other of those two different sets of passions; either by ungovernable ambition and resentment, or by the importunate solicitations of present ease and pleasure. But though these two orders of passions are so apt to mislead us, they are still considered as necessary parts of human nature: the first having been given to defend us against injuries, to assert our rank and dignity in the world, to make us aim at what is noble and honourable, and to make us distinguish those who act in the same manner; the second, to provide for the support and necessities of the body.

In the strength, acuteness, and perfection of the governing principle was placed the essential virtue of prudence, which, according to Plato, consisted in a just and clear discernment, founded upon general and scientific ideas, of the ends which were proper to be pursued, and of the means which were proper for attaining them.

When the first set of passions, those of the irascible part of the soul, had that degree of strength and firmness, which enabled them, under the direction of reason, to despise all dangers in the pursuit of what was honourable and noble; it constituted the virtue of fortitude and magnanimity. This order of passions, according to this system, was of a more generous and noble nature than the other. They were considered upon many occasions as the auxiliaries of reason, to check and restrain the inferior and brutal appetites. We are often angry at ourselves, it was observed, we often become the objects of our own resentment and indignation, when the love of pleasure prompts to do what we disapprove of; and the irascible part of our nature is in this manner called in to assist the rational against the concupiscible.

When all those three different parts of our nature were in perfect concord with one another, when neither the irascible nor concupiscible passions ever aimed at any gratification which reason did not approve of, and when reason never commanded any thing, but what these of their own accord were willing to perform: this happy composure, this perfect and complete harmony of soul, constituted that virtue which in their language is expressed by a word which we commonly translate temperance, but which might more properly be translated good temper, or sobriety and moderation of mind.

Justice, the last and greatest of the four cardinal virtues, took place, according to this system, when each of those three faculties of the mind confined itself to its proper office, without attempting to encroach upon that of any other; when reason directed and passion obeyed, and when each passion performed its proper duty, and exerted itself towards its proper object easily and without reluctance, and with that degree of force and energy, which was suitable to the value of what it pursued. In this consisted that complete virtue, that perfect propriety of conduct, which Plato ... denominated Justice."

Described in this manner, Plato's system of morals bears a resemblance both to the utility function hypothesized by Howard Margolis (where a central decision making process arbitrates being a public spirited Smith and a self-interested Smith) and also to the systems of survival envisioned by Jane Jacobs which had an honour driver Guardian syndrome contrasted with a comfort driven Commercial syndrome.

One thing to puzzle out is whether prudence belongs on top as an organizing principle (as Smith indicates that Plato intended) or as part of the self-interested, comfort-seeking set of behaviours as Smith himself, or Jane Jacobs would have it. Or perhaps there are just two different things being meant by the word prudence.

71. The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Part 1

Note: This post is the seventy-first in a series about government and commercial ethics. Click here for the full listing of the series. The first post in the series has more detail on the book 'Systems of Survival' by Jane Jacobs which inspired this series.

This week's post is on the book, 'The Theory of Moral Sentiments' by Adam Smith.

The Theory of Moral Sentiments is a long rambling book, and I only plan to cover a small part of it here. Much of the book is taken up with Smith's argument that sympathy is one of the prime motivators of our moral senses, whether positive sympathy with other people's happiness and well being and benevolence, negative sympathy with their anger and fear and hatred or a more muted sympathy with their more personal emotions such as grief and joy.

What I want to spend more time on this week is Smith's comment that, "The great division of our affections is into the selfish and the benevolent." Accordingly, he has a chapter on each.

First up is selfish affections. Here are a few quotes from Smith, who treats 'prudence' as the name for all the properties that lead a man to his own benefit.

"The preservation and healthful state of the body seem to be the objects which Nature first recommends to the care of every individual."

...

"As he grows up, he soon learns that some care and foresight are necessary for providing the means of gratifying those natural appetites"

...

"Though it is in order to supply the necessities and conveniencies of the body, that the advantages of external fortune are originally recommended to us, yet we cannot live long in the world without perceiving that the respect of our equals, our credit and rank in the society we live in, depend very much upon the degree in which we possess, or are supposed to possess, those advantages. The desire of becoming the proper objects of this respect, of deserving and obtaining this credit and rank among our equals, is, perhaps, the strongest of all our desires, and our anxiety to obtain the advantages of fortune is accordingly much more excited and irritated by this desire, than by that of supplying all the necessities and conveniencies of the body, which are always very easily supplied."

...

"We suffer more, it has already been observed, when we fall from a better to a worse situation, than we ever enjoy when we rise from a worse to a better. Security, therefore, is the first and the principal object of prudence. It is averse to expose our health, our fortune, our rank, or reputation, to any sort of hazard. It is rather cautious than enterprising, and more anxious to preserve the advantages which we already possess, than forward to prompt us to the acquisition of still greater advantages."

...

"His conversation is simple and modest, and he is averse to all the quackish arts by which other people so frequently thrust themselves into public notice and reputation. For reputation in his profession he is naturally disposed to rely a good deal upon the solidity of his knowledge and abilities; and he does not always think of cultivating the favour of those little clubs and cabals"

...

"The prudent man is always sincere, and feels horror at the very thought of exposing himself to the disgrace which attends upon the detection of falsehood."

...

"is friendship is not that ardent and passionate, but too often transitory affection, which appears so delicious to the generosity of youth and inexperience."

...

"In the steadiness of his industry and frugality, in his steadily sacrificing the ease and enjoyment of the present moment for the probable expectation of the still greater ease and enjoyment of a more distant but more lasting period of time, the prudent man is always both supported and rewarded by the entire approbation of the impartial spectator, and of the representative of the impartial spectator, the man within the breast."

...

"If he enters into any new projects or enterprises, they are likely to be well concerted and well prepared. He can never be hurried or drove into them by any necessity, but has always time and leisure to deliberate soberly and coolly concerning what are likely to be their consequences."

...

"When distinctly called upon, he will not decline the service of his country, but he will not cabal in order to force himself into it"

...

"Wise and judicious conduct, when directed to greater and nobler purposes than the care of the health, the fortune, the rank and reputation of the individual, is frequently and very properly called prudence. We talk of the prudence of the great general, of the great statesman, of the great legislator. Prudence is, in all these cases, combined with many greater and more splendid virtues, with valour, with extensive and strong benevolence, with a sacred regard to the rules of justice, and all these supported by a proper degree of self-command."

Some of this aligns with what we have seen with the commercial syndrome in Jane Jacobs' Systems of Survival, but some doesn't.

In particular, Smith's concern of the prudent man for status, and the cautiousness of his prudent man, do not line up with the commercial ethics that Jane Jacobs described. In some ways, this description resembles Weber's description of the traditional economy that existed prior to the rise of 'The Spirit of Capitalism'.


* * *

After talking about man's selfish affections, Smith moves on to man's benevolent affections:

"The character of every individual, so far as it can affect the happiness of other people, must do so by its disposition either to hurt or to benefit them.

Proper resentment for injustice attempted, or actually committed, is the only motive which, in the eyes of the impartial spectator, can justify our hurting or disturbing in any respect the happiness of our neighbour. To do so from any other motive is itself a violation of the laws of justice, which force ought to be employed either to restrain or to punish."

...

"The love of our own nation often disposes us to view, with the most malignant jealousy and envy, the prosperity and aggrandisement of any other neighbouring nation. Independent and neighbouring nations, having no common superior to decide their disputes, all live in continual dread and suspicion of one another. Each sovereign, expecting little justice from his neighbours, is disposed to treat them with as little as he expects from them. The regard for the laws of nations, or for those rules which independent states profess or pretend to think themselves bound to observe in their dealings with one another, is often very little more than mere pretence and profession. From the smallest interest, upon the slightest provocation, we see those rules every day, either evaded or directly violated without shame or remorse."

...

"The love of our country seems, in ordinary cases, to involve in it two different principles; first, a certain respect and reverence for that constitution or form of government which is actually established; and secondly, an earnest desire to render the condition of our fellow-citizens as safe, respectable, and happy as we can. He is not a citizen who is not disposed to respect the laws and to obey the civil magistrate; and he is certainly not a good citizen who does not wish to promote, by every means in his power, the welfare of the whole society of his fellow-citizens."

...

"Foreign war and civil faction are the two situations which afford the most splendid opportunities for the display of public spirit. The hero who serves his country successfully in foreign war gratifies the wishes of the whole nation, and is, upon that account, the object of universal gratitude and admiration."

To be honest, I didn't find a lot of interest in Smith's description. There is brief mention of the importance of prowess, the role of deception, the desire to dispense largesse and the use of force when necessary, but not much more than that.

Of all the 'major' works of philosophy I've read as part of this series, Smith's 'Theory of Moral Sentiments' seems the most disconnected from Jane Jacobs and her 'Systems of Survival.' Nonetheless, next week I'll follow up by discussing what, to me, was the most interesting part of the book: Smith's description of the moral systems of the philosophers who came before him, in particular Plato.